Chapter 9: Urban Livelihoods

India is home to over five thousand towns and twenty-seven major cities, where millions of people live and work. Urban areas are hubs of diverse economic activities, offering a range of employment and earning opportunities that are often very different from those in rural areas. However, these opportunities are not equal for everyone. This chapter explores the various ways people earn a living in the city, from self-employed street workers to permanent employees in large companies, and examines the disparities in their work conditions and security.

Working On The Street

The streets of a city are a vibrant workplace for a large number of people who are self-employed. These individuals are a crucial part of the urban economy, offering a variety of goods and services. You can see vegetable vendors, flower sellers, newspaper hawkers, cobblers, and roadside barbers, all running their own small businesses. This sector of the economy is often referred to as the informal sector.

Workers on the street have to organize everything themselves. They are not employed by anyone, so they must plan what to buy, how much to invest, and where to set up their temporary shops. Their workplaces are often just a plastic sheet, a few boxes, or a cart. This type of work comes with a significant lack of security, as they can be asked by the police to move at any time.

Bachchu Manjhi – A Cycle-Rickshaw Puller

Bachchu Manjhi's story is a typical example of a migrant worker seeking a better livelihood in the city. He moved from his village in Bihar, where he worked as a mason, because the work was irregular and the income was insufficient for his family.

• Nature of Work: In the city, he bought an old cycle-rickshaw on instalments and now works as a rickshaw puller. He works long hours, from morning until 8:30 p.m., ferrying customers.
• Earnings: He earns a daily wage of about $\textsf{₹}$ 200-300. After spending on food and rent, he saves the rest to send to his family in the village.
• Lack of Security: His income is entirely dependent on his ability to work. If he falls ill and takes a day off, he earns nothing for that day. He has no paid leave, medical benefits, or job security.

Recent government efforts are recognizing the rights of street vendors. The law is being modified to create designated "hawking zones", which aim to provide street vendors with a legal place to work without obstructing traffic, acknowledging their right to earn a livelihood.

In The Market

In contrast to the temporary nature of street vending, city markets are home to permanent shops and businesses. These shops, whether small or large, are part of the formal economy. They have a physical location and are required to have a license from the Municipal Corporation to operate. The Corporation also regulates market timings, such as deciding which day of the week the market remains closed.

Harpreet And Vandana: Businesspersons

The story of Harpreet and Vandana illustrates the life of urban businesspersons who own a formal establishment.

• Nature of Business: They own a large, three-floor garment showroom. They are self-employed entrepreneurs who also act as employers, hiring supervisors and helpers to work in their shop.
• Business Operations: Their work involves more than just selling. Vandana is a dress designer. They source materials from various cities like Mumbai and Ahmedabad, and even from other countries. They invest in advertising through newspapers, cinema, and television to attract customers.
• Stability and Growth: Their business is a permanent establishment. It has grown over the years, allowing them to buy a car and book a flat. This reflects a level of financial stability and success that is a world away from the precarious existence of a street vendor.

In The Factory-Workshop Area

Many urban areas have dedicated factory and workshop zones. These areas are magnets for workers, especially those seeking daily-wage labour. A common feature of such areas is the "labour chowk", an intersection where daily wage labourers gather with their tools every morning, waiting for contractors or individuals to hire them for the day. This is a highly unorganized and precarious form of employment.

Nirmala's story provides insight into the life of a casual worker in a factory setting.

• Nature of Work: Nirmala works as a tailor in a garment export factory. Her job is not permanent; she is employed on a casual basis, meaning she is called to work only when the employer needs her.
• Working Conditions: Her work is seasonal, tied to large export orders. During peak season (December to April), she works extremely long hours, often from 9 a.m. to 10 p.m., six days a week, and sometimes on Sundays.
• Earnings and Lack of Security: She is paid a daily wage of $\textsf{₹}$ 280 for eight hours, plus extra for working late. However, for about three to four months a year, when work is lean, she is asked to leave and has no income. She has no job security, no paid leave, no medical benefits, and can be fired if she complains about her pay or working conditions.

Working In Call Centres

Call centres represent a newer form of employment in big cities. They are large, centralized offices that handle customer service and queries for various companies, including foreign ones. India has become a major hub for call centres due to the availability of a large, English-speaking workforce willing to work for lower wages than their Western counterparts. While these jobs are in the formal sector, they are often characterized by night shifts and high-pressure work environments.

In The Office Area

The most secure and stable form of urban livelihood is the permanent, regular job found in offices, factories, and government departments. These jobs are part of the organized or formal sector of the economy.

Sudha's story as a Marketing Manager in a biscuit manufacturing company exemplifies this type of employment.

• Nature of Work: She is a permanent employee with the company. Her work is clearly defined, she has a fixed workplace, and she receives a regular monthly salary.
• Job Security: Unlike a casual worker, she can expect her job to continue for a long period and cannot be asked to leave just because there is less work.
• Benefits: A permanent job comes with several crucial benefits that are unavailable to casual workers:
  • Savings for Old Age: A portion of her salary is contributed to a government fund (like a Provident Fund), which she will receive with interest upon retirement.
  • Holidays: She gets paid leave, including Sundays off, national holidays, and annual leave.
  • Medical Facilities: The company covers medical expenses for her and her family up to a certain limit.
  • Paid Sick Leave: If she falls ill, she can take leave without her salary being cut.